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• ISSUES
• HISTORY
• LARGE SCALE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION
• FOR MITIGATION AND ENHANCEMENT

* Do we need more hatcheries?

* Do we need small scale rearing programs to help more young fish survive over winter?

* Concern that rearing fish in hatchboxes may not achieve desired effect if habitat quality remains poor.

* Concern that the "quick fix" of massive hatchery programs may have negative side effects and lead to eventual disaster.

* The need to return the river to a native stock base rather than the present artificial hatchery base.

* Concern that hatchery planting may exceed the carrying capacity of the river leading to decreased survival of both hatchery and native juvenile salmon and steelhead.

When this county was first settled by man, all of our rivers and streams were stocked to the limit with rainbow trout ... salmon and other species of fish. But, in common with the bison and other wild game, they were ruthlessly slaughtered by man for food and gain. We have now come to the time where natural fish producing streams, lakes and rivers throughout the West have disappeared.

A.J. Sprague

The move to use hatcheries to offset habitat destruction and over-fishing was begun in the 1870's and Livingston Stone spoke of "the struggle to keep ahead of man's harmful actions on rivers, streams, and lakes to the detriment of fish and fishing" (McEvoy 1986). The first salmon hatchery in the Klamath Basin was established at Fort Gaston on the Hoopa Reservation in 1889 (Schofield 1929). It used chinook eggs from Redwood Creek and the Sacramento River and was closed in 1898 because of its remote locale (Schofield 1929).

A second hatchery was opened shortly after on an unspecified lower Klamath tributary and operated for several years (Schofield 1929). Again eggs used for the program were from Sacramento River, Redwood Creek, and Rogue River stocks. Large chinook salmon runs were established in Hunter and High Prairie Creeks while the hatchery was operated but they ceased when hatchery operations were discontinued (Schofield 1929). These fish were never planted above the mouth of Hunter Creek (Snyder 1931).

Upper basin stocking programs were begun in 1890 by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (Fortune et al. 1966). No hatchery was established at this time, however chinook fry and yearlings were planted through 1893 then in 1898, 1903, and 1908. Sacramento River stocks were used which puzzled Snyder (1931): "Just why it was deemed necessary to import fish to the Klamath, or why a stream where depletion was already apparent should be further robbed does not appear." Coho salmon were stocked in 1895. The 1908 plant included rainbow and Eastern brook trout. The California Fish Commission also stocked the Klamath intermittently between 1896 and 1916 with chinook fry from the Mt. Shasta Hatchery.

The U.S. Fisheries Bureau set up a fish trapping facility at Klamathon in 1910. The Klamathon Racks blocked upstream migration of chinooks and coho into the upper Klamath drainage. Finally the Fisheries Bureau established a hatchery at Hornbrook in 1912, and by 1914 chinook and coho salmon of Klamath River origin were being raised and planted by this facility. Operation ceased in 1919.

The hatchery mentioned above on Spencer Creek was largely a trout hatchery. Migration of salmon and steelhead was blocked to this area of the basin first by the Klamathon Racks and in 1917 by Copco Dam.

The most long lasting fish cultural endeavor in the Klamath Basin was built at Fall Creek in 1920 to offset blocked migration at Copco Dam (Bryant 1923). Snyder looked on the hatchery as an opportunity to "demonstrate that artificial production may maintain the species, at least on a par with natural propagation elsewhere in the basin." The California Department of Fish and Game assumed operation of this facility from its inception. From 1920 through 1948 an average of 3,400,000 native chinook fingerlings were planted annually. Chinook eggs were also transferred from Fall Creek to the Mt. Shasta Hatchery and returned to the Klamath as fry (Dennis Maria personal communication). Smaller contributions from Prairie Creek Hatchery (Redwood Creek) were planted in the 1940's and early 1950's (Fortune et al. 1966). An average of 600,000 fingerling steelhead from native stock were also planted at Fall Creek Hatchery. Although coho salmon were trapped with chinook at Klamathon, they were never spawned (Bryant 1923).

Snyder (1931) was concerned in the late 1920's that artificial production was unable to supply fish to keep pace with rising harvest. He also noted that the Shasta River, even in a degraded condition was producing as many or more fish than artificial propagation at Fall Creek Hatchery, which was the only hatchery in the basin. The California Department of Fish and Game in 1945 conceded "that artificial production of anadromous salmonids has not proven more efficient than natural production, nor has it been found economically justifiable" (Van Cleve 1945 as cited in McEvoy 1986).

As dams were built on the Klamath and Trinity Rivers in the early 1960's, however, large hatcheries were the only solution to mitigate for habitat lost upstream of these structures. In the late 1970's small scale hatchbox and rearing pond programs were initiated to increase fish production in lower basin tributaries.

Iron Gate and Trinity River Hatcheries are the two large scale artificial propagation facilities in the Klamath River Basin. Both were constructed to offset losses due to large dams which blocked migration to former spawning areas. Both facilities have been able to substantially increase production in recent years.

Iron Gate Hatchery

Iron Gate Hatchery was constructed below Iron Gate Dam to mitigate for lost habitat blocked by the dam. Construction costs were paid by Pacific Power and Light Company (PPL) and operation of the facility was assumed by the California Department of Fish and Game. PPL still pays 80 percent of operation costs while CDFG covers the remaining 20 percent.

Production

The Iron Gate Hatchery Operational Plan (CDFGa no date) sets the production goals for mitigation and enhancement shown in Table 5-1. Goals for total egg take for fall chinook salmon are to incubate 18,000,000 fall chinook eggs, which represents the rearing capacity of incubation trays. Eggs taken in excess of 15,000,000 can be shipped to supply the programs elsewhere in the state such as Oroville Reservoir. Hatchery guidelines call for the release of 6,000,000 fall chinook fingerlings for mitigation and 1,400,000 yearlings for enhancement. Annual goals for coho salmon call for collecting 500,000 eggs to enable rearing of 75,000 yearlings for mitigation. Steelhead targets are an egg take of 1,000,000 to ultimately yield 200,000 yearlings.

The actual hatchery production from 1979 to 1988 is listed in Table 5-2. Coho and steelhead planted as yearlings have averaged 119,796 and 311,531 per year respectively. Minor numbers of fingerlings of these species are included in figures below in some years. Yearlings of coho and steelhead raised above mitigation goals would be CDFG contributions for enhancement purposes. Fall chinook have shown dramatic rises in number of fingerlings planted. From 1979 to 1984 fingerling plants averaged 1,685,439 annually and jumped to an average of 10,632,777 in the years since 1985. Fall chinook yearlings have stayed relatively constant and averaged 1,110,421 per year. The number of juvenile salmonids released from Iron Gate Hatchery, particularly since 1985, is substantially greater than that contemplated in the Hatchery's operating guidelines. No yearling chinook were raised at Iron Gate Hatchery during 1990 due to CDFG budget restrictions.

From Iron Gate Hatchery Reports (Hiser 1978-89).

From Iron Gate Hatchery Reports (Hiser 1978-89).

Returns

Returns of adult salmon and steelhead to the Iron Gate Hatchery from 1979-1988 are shown in Table 5-3. Fall chinook have shown a substantial upswing during this period. While average returns for 1979-81 were 2,672, returns rose to an average of 8,388 for 1982-84, and to 18,599 for 1985-88. The increase in escapement to Iron Gate Hatchery may have been in part as a result of reduction in harvest. Favorable ocean conditions also contributed to increased escapements of both hatchery and native stocks. Returns of fall chinook often include a few Trinity River Hatchery adults, some from Cole River Hatchery on the Rogue River and, rarely, fish from the Sacramento River.

Yearling chinook planted return to the hatchery at a rate of 3.5-to-1 over fingerlings. Average annual contributions to the fisheries and escapement from Iron Gate Hatchery releases between 1979-84 were 7,330 for fingerlings and 25,560 from yearling releases (Bill Chesney personal communication). A high percentage of Iron Gate Hatchery yearling chinook releases mature at age four.

Coho returns from 1979-1988 have ranged widely from a low of 289 in 1983 to a high of 2,893 in 1987. Average run size has been 1,851. Steelhead returns to Iron Gate Hatchery have averaged 2,577 during the same period. Coho from Cole River Hatchery on the Rogue sometimes return to Iron Gate.

Planting Procedures, Stock Transfer

Before 1985, Iron Gate Hatchery fall chinook were sometimes planted as far downstream as Klamath Glen. These outplantings were conducted on an experimental basis. After evaluating the program, returns were not found to be higher than those juvenile chinook released at the hatchery so the practice was discontinued (D. Maria personal communication). Most plants of fall chinook are now done at the hatchery, although stocks are transferred to support pond rearing programs downstream. Release time for the 6,000,000 chinook fingerlings raised to 90 to the pound has been changed from June and July to no later than May 31. This earlier release date mimics the pattern of migration for native stocks and allows the hatchery fingerlings to avoid warmer river temperatures (T. Mills personal communication). If water conditions are appropriate, fingerlings may be held until June 15 to attain optimal size. Yearling chinook are released in October. Recent transfers have also been made to establish a landlocked fishery in Oroville Lake and for a rearing project on the central coast.

From the 1,000,000 eggs collected annually, selection of 250,000 fingerlings occurs before September 1, with the ultimate goal of rearing 200,000 steelhead juveniles to yearlings. Steelhead yearling releases have been in April and May at Iron Gate Hatchery. Recent transfers of steelhead fingerlings to the Perch Creek rearing ponds in 1988 and 1989 were 10,000 and 12,000. The fish are then raised to yearling size. In 1985 and 1986, 430,000 steelhead eggs were transferred to the Trinity River Hatchery. Transfers of steelhead eggs between Iron Gate and Trinity River Hatcheries is no longer allowed (CDFGb no date).

Coho yearlings have been released in March and April. From 1986 to 1988 40% of the coho yearlings were planted at the hatchery. The remainder were transplanted into Indian Creek, Elk Creek, and Beaver Creek. Iron Gate coho were planted in the Salmon River in 1985. 450,000 and 850,000 surplus coho eggs were shipped to the Mad River Hatchery in 1986 and 1987, respectively.

To insure that production goals are met, excess eggs are taken and excess fry are reared. As these juvenile fish grow, they begin to exceed the rearing capacity allotted. A portion of the excess juvenile chinook are removed from each raceway and released to the river at the hatchery site. Each group has had some fraction marked by clipping the adipose fin and implanting coded wire tags to monitor performance (Bill Chesney personal communication). Excess juvenile steelhead have been released above Iron Gate Dam in the past, but planting of steelhead in Iron Gate Lake has been discontinued (Curt Hiser personal communication).

Broodstock

Iron Gate Hatchery has used Klamath River fall chinook stocks for broodstock exclusively. Attempts to establish a spring chinook run from native stock when the hatchery was first founded were unsuccessful. Insufficient numbers of native coho were returning to the hatchery site when Iron Gate Dam was completed, so coho stocks were founded with eggs imported from the Trinity River Hatchery, Cascade Hatchery in Oregon, and Mt. Shasta Hatchery (CH2M Hill 1985). Since Mt. Shasta Hatchery is on the Sacramento, which does not have coho salmon, the coho from this source may have been from another California stream, such as the Noyo River (Bob Corn personal communication). While native steelhead were trapped for broodstock at Iron Gate Hatchery when it was opened, steelhead eggs were imported from the Trinity River Hatchery to supplement those fish captured locally. Trinity River steelhead continued to contribute to Iron Gate egg takes through straying (Marshall 1974). Cowlitz River steelhead from Washington were also introduced to attempt to increase the size of steelhead returning to the hatchery (Riley 1969).

Each year broodfish are selected from a representative return of both early and later returning chinook. Steelhead arriving after January 1 are spawned separately from those returning earlier to maintain wide run timing. All excess adults of all species are returned to the river except those bearing coded wire tags which are sacrificed to retrieve the tag.

Figure 5-1 -- Iron Gate staff show visitors the hatchery. The hatchery's incubator trays can hold up to 18 million eggs.

Disease and Operational Problems

Disease and operational problems with the protozoan pathogen, Ceratomyxa shasta, were experienced shortly after Iron Gate Hatchery was opened and periodic outbreaks continued into the early 1980's (CH2M Hill 1985). Other diseases present include Columnaris disease, an external and gill infection caused by the bacteria Flexibacter columnaris (Amos 1985), bacterial gill disease, Flavobacterium sp. (Wakabayashi et al. 1980), and soft shell and white spot. Both the latter diseases are thought to be caused by the bacteria Cytophaga (Wood 1974). Iron Gate Hatchery coho have had chronic problems with soft shell necessitating large egg takes to insure that production goals are met (CDFGa no date). Bacterial kidney disease (BKD), which is caused by Renibacterium salmoninarum (Amos 1985), has been found at Iron Gate Hatchery in recent years but no significant losses have occurred (Mel Willis personal communication).

Water for Iron Gate Hatchery is drawn from 70 feet below the surface of the reservoir to obtain cool water. Low oxygen levels in the water are remedied by using an aeration device but organic material in the water remains high. PPL conducted an experiment in 1986-88 where intake water was filtered for a few incubation trays and an increase of 15 percent in survival resulted (Curt Hiser personal communication). Long term plans of PPL include filtering all water used by the hatchery.

Approximately 500,000 fall chinook fingerling died shortly after release in June 1987 when stream temperatures below Iron Gate Dam were substantially warmer than the temperatures in the hatchery ponds (Sacramento Bee 1987). Thermal stress may have caused the high mortality of the fish that were released. Earlier release dates now preclude a recurrence of this problem.

Trinity River Hatchery

Trinity River Hatchery was built by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation to offset losses in salmon and steelhead habitat above Lewiston and Trinity Dams. The California Department of Fish and Game has been responsible for operating the facility since its inception in 1963. The hatchery recently underwent extensive improvements as part of the Trinity River Basin fisheries restoration program.

Production

Table 5-4 lists the production goals for mitigation and enhancement set out in the Trinity River Hatchery Operational Guidelines (CDFG no date).

Actual production totals from 1979 to 1988 at Trinity River Hatchery are listed in Table 5-5. Fingerling plants of spring and fall chinook combined averaged 1,360,748 from 1979 through 1984. From 1985 to 1988 plants increased to an average of 5,285,053. Yearling plants have not shown similar increases but have averaged 1,206,324 from 1979-1988. In 1988 only 93,300 yearling chinook were planted. From 1979 to 1988 the average number of coho juveniles planted was 670,531 annually. Plants ranged from a high of 1,198,696 in 1981 to a low of 156,150 in 1984. Numbers of steelhead juveniles planted range from a low of 237,000 in 1983 to a high of 925,000 in 1987. Average annual releases from 1979-1988 have been 585,658.

Returns

Chinook returns to the Trinity River Hatchery increased dramatically between 1985 and 1988 as a result of reduced ocean harvest. Improved streamflow releases from the federal Central Valley Project's Trinity Reservoir and favorable ocean conditions also are believed to have contributed to the increase in escapement (USFWS in press). Average combined returns of spring and fall chinook from 1979 to 1984 were 5,923 adults. The average return jumped to 28,619 from 1985 to 1988.

From Trinity River Hatchery Reports 1984-1989 and CH2M Hill (1985).

The range of coho adult returns to the hatchery has varied from a low of 706 in 1983 to 23,338 in 1987. Some years, such as 1984, the run was composed largely of jacks. Average coho returns have been 8,232. Steelhead returns to the hatchery have been erratic, dropping to a low of 142 in 1984 but reaching a high of 3,780 in 1986. Returns of steelhead were very good in 1989 (Paul Hubbell personal communication). The higher levels of return in three out of the last four years seem to indicate a trend toward better success with steelhead performance at Trinity River Hatchery.

Table 5-6 lists the returns to the Trinity River Hatchery from 1979 to 1988.

Planting Procedures, Stock Transfers

Fingerling chinook are released from Trinity River Hatchery in June while yearlings are released in October and November. Prior to 1986, chinook were planted downstream in the Trinity River as far as Willow Creek, but more commonly at Junction City and Lime Point. Trinity River Hatchery fall chinook were supplied for rearing programs on the Hoopa Reservation through 1987. While hatchery renovations were underway, chinook were reared at Sawmill Ponds just downstream from the hatchery and released in the immediate area. All releases now occur at the hatchery. Ambrose and Sawmill Ponds were activated in 1987 to rear excess juveniles from the large egg take that year.

Yearling chinook planted by Trinity River Hatchery have contributed at a consistently higher rate than fingerlings to both the fisheries and to escapement (Serge Birk personal communication). Some chinook were held for over a year and released in February. Adults from these yearling-plus releases returned to the river at a high rate but at a much smaller size (Alan Barracco personal communication). This program has been discontinued.

Coho and steelhead were widely transplanted prior to 1984 in the Trinity Basin as far down as Weitchpec and in the Hayfork and South Fork of the Trinity drainage. All releases of both species now are made only at the hatchery. Coho are released in March and steelhead are released in March and April. Prior to 1984, plants of both species were a mixture of fingerlings and yearlings. Now steelhead and coho are raised to yearling size before release. Steelhead not attaining a size of six inches by release time are raised for a second year in the hatchery.

From Trinity River Hatchery Annual Reports 1984-1989.

Broodstock

Trinity River Hatchery chinook salmon are largely of native origin, although some Sacramento River and Washington stocks were used in the early years of operation. In 1982, 2,500,000 Iron Gate Hatchery fall chinook eggs were imported, but since most were not viable due to disease (Beddell 1985), genetic implications were probably insignificant. Such practices are no longer allowed (Bob Corn personal communication).

Coho stocks were derived from Cascade Hatchery in Oregon. Native steelhead were used for original broodstock for the hatchery but problems with low returns caused significant importation of steelhead from Iron Gate Hatchery, Cedar Creek Hatchery on the Eel River, three Oregon hatcheries, and Washington's Skamania Hatchery. Iron Gate Hatchery eggs were imported as recently as 1984-85.

Disease and Operational Problems

Diseases present at Trinity River Hatchery include enteric red mouth which is caused by the bacteria Yersinia ruckeri, bacterial kidney disease (BKD), white spot and infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN), a viral disease. Seven million coho eggs were found to be at risk to IHN in 1985 and destroyed as a precautionary measure (Bob Corn personal communication). IHN has caused losses of between one and two million chinook salmon annually during spring at Trinity River Hatchery over the last few years (Bill Wingfield personal communication). This problem seems to have been resolved by use of an anti-viral compound, iotophore. No losses were experienced during the spring of 1990 after all eggs had been treated with this substance (Bill Wingfield personal communication). IHN is most severe at temperatures from 40-54 F. (Amos 1985). The hatchery has also recently been equipped with heaters so water temperatures can be raised (Serge Birk personal communication).

Bartley and Gall (1990) recently reported that crosses between chinook and coho salmon ("conooks") were occurring in the Klamath River Basin and particularly at or below Trinity River Hatchery. Chevassus (1979), in a review of the literature, found natural crossing of chinook and coho to be extremely rare. The earlier run timing of the hatchery strain of coho versus original native coho stocks, the large runs of both coho and fall chinook in recent years, and the limited amount of spawning area below the hatchery may be the combination of factors that led to this occurrence.

Hendrick et al. (1987) also noted the crosses occurring at Trinity River Hatchery and described changes in resistance to disease that may be related to the hybridization. They noted that coho were not susceptible to IHN at the hatchery or anywhere in their range. Experiments were conducted by Hendrick et al. (1987) and it was discovered that while pure coho were resistant to IHN, chinook had some susceptibility, and the hybrid conooks had almost no resistance to IHN. Hybridization could lead to increased losses of fish at Trinity River Hatchery to IHN. Bartley (personal communication) indicates that hybrids may retain external characteristics of chinook or coho but sometimes have mixes of both. Thus, the problem of intermixing hybrids into broodstocks could elude graders and continue to exacerbate the problem.

Spring chinook holding in the Trinity River above Junction City during the summer had a high mortality rate in the recent years of high escapement (1986-88). The exact cause of this problem is unknown but USFWS (1990c) used an estimate of 50 percent mortality before spawning for those fish passing above the CDFG Junction City weir. Possible causes include overcrowding and harassment by poachers while the fish are holding during summer (USFWS in press). Two large holding pools have recently been dredged by the Trinity River Restoration Program to try and decrease overcrowding stress.

Increased disease monitoring for Trinity River Hatchery fish and native Trinity River fish is being proposed for 1991 (Foote 1990).

   

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