Long Range Plan for the Klamath River Basin Conservation
Area Fishery Restoration Program
Part 1 of
ISSUES
* How do we identify the distinct salmonid stocks
of the Klamath Basin and how do we protect their remaining genetic
diversity?
* There is a need for the Klamath Fisheries Management Council
to help protect the locally adapted stocks needed for population
rebuilding while still providing for fisheries.
* Enforcement in the Klamath Basin is a huge problem: more wardens
are needed, as well as stricter enforcement of possession limits.
* Is there a significant impact by high seas drift-netting on
Klamath River salmon and steelhead?
* What is the impact of predators on salmon and steelhead populations?
* Should native stocks of steelhead be protected by catch-and-release
regulations?
* We should judge the success of the Restoration Program on increases
in native fish, not hatchery stocks.
INTRODUCTION
This section deals with the identification of
anadromous fish stocks and trends in their run strength. Discussions
concerning the protection of various stock groups from overharvesting,
predation, and threats related to habitat destruction are also
included.
It may seem that the matter of depletion is
overstressed in this report, since its progress has been evident
for years. A condition of increasing depletion was not sufficiently
evident on the Klamath, however to be convincing to those most
interested. In fact, opinions to the contrary were commonly held,
some asserting that the runs were gradually building up. There
is very little exact information concerning....the Klamath River
previous to 1912.
J.O. Snyder
Thus wrote Dr. J.O. Snyder for the California
Division of Fish and Game in 1931 about trends in run strength
on the Klamath in the 1920's. The comments have a striking similarity
to those of biologists around 1980. One need only substitute "1978"
for 1912. The lack of exact information still holds true today
for many of the river's fish stocks. Snyder was concerned that
two- and three-year-old chinook salmon were dominating the ocean
and river catch and that six-year-old fish had disappeared from
the runs. It was not the first downturn in the river's fish populations
(Hume in Snyder 1931).
Before Europeans settled in the Klamath Basin,
the Yurok, Hoopa, and Karuk Indians had been sustained by the
river's fishes for thousands of years. Weirs were constructed
annually at various sites in the Hoopa Valley, at Red Cap Creek,
and the largest at Cappell Creek below Weitchpec. Conservation
of salmon populations was insured by use of harvest methods governed
in accordance with a complex set of social and religious customs
(Kroeber 1974). The behavior may have evolved from past experiences
with food shortages after periods of overharvest (McEvoy 1986).
Mining was the first major impact of European
culture on the Klamath watershed. The first wave of degradation
changed the balance of the river's chinook stocks from predominantly
spring chinook to fall chinook runs (Hume in Snyder 1931). The
primary cause of the decline may have been the heavy sediment
loads unleashed by hydraulic mining which filled the deep pools
required by spring chinook for holding during summer (see effects
of mining in Chapter 2). Sediment problems from mining were probably
exacerbated by a large flood in 1861. Miners may have been heavily
reliant on salmon as a food source. Snyder (1931) claimed that
"large numbers of salmon were speared or otherwise captured
as they neared their spawning beds, and if credence be given to
the reports of old miners, there then appeared to be the first
and perhaps major cause of early depletion." A splash dam
was constructed across the Klamath at Klamathon in 1889 which
blocked spring chinook passage into the upper Klamath basin until
it was washed out by a flood in 1902 (Fortune et al. 1966). By
1892 spring chinook were thought to be almost extinct (Hume in
Snyder 1931).
It is unlikely that the Indian harvest contributed
substantially to the early decline of the spring run of chinook
salmon. Spring chinook were not a high priority for subsistence
harvest by Indians because the fish's high body fat made it unsuitable
for drying and smoking. Because the river was often swollen and
surging in the spring due to snow melt, spring chinook may have
been difficult to harvest even with gill nets. The Yurok began
to fish commercially at the mouth of the Klamath in 1876. Only
Indians were allowed to fish and the first pack for the new canneries
in the lower river was in 1881 (McEvoy 1986).
Gold mining in the Klamath Basin dwindled at
the turn of the century due to decreased profits. As habitat began
to recover, the fall chinook in the river started to rebound.
The runs rebuilt to a peak in abundance around 1912, as indicated
by the cannery pack (Snyder 1931). The Yurok began to modernize
and increase their fishing efforts about 1915 and continued to
do so until 1928 (McEvoy 1986).
Commercial gill net harvest in the Sacramento
River was greatly reduced in the 1880's as a result of pressure
from sport fishermen (McEvoy 1986). With the resurgence of salmon
populations in both the Sacramento and the Klamath Rivers, the
ocean troll fishery grew. Trolling efforts were fairly primitive,
at first involving sailboats in the Monterey and San Francisco
Bay areas. By 1915 boats with motors were in use, and both catch
and effort were rising sharply (McEvoy 1986). Snyder and Schofield
(1924) tagged salmon from the Klamath and noted that they were
being caught as far south as Monterey. The combined efficiency
of the new troll fishery, which by 1920 covered the entire coast,
and the modern gill net fishery proved too much for the salmon.
Snyder's observations were correct. Klamath stocks reached an
extreme low in the early 1930's. The canneries on the river were
ordered closed in 1933, and commercial fishing in the river was
outlawed (Moffett and Smith 1950).
After Snyder's work, little information about
Klamath River run sizes was collected. The California salmon troll
fishery had declining catches through the 1930's reaching a record
low in 1938 (McEvoy 1986). After World War II, the ocean salmon
fishery rebounded strongly. Runs in the Klamath during the postwar
period probably reflected this general trend. In 1955, alone,
the sport catch on the river was estimated to be 95,000 chinook
and 100,000 steelhead (Coots 1967).
Timber harvest activities were greatly increased
after World War II. Disturbances associated with logging and the
1955 flood caused substantial damage to salmon and steelhead habitat.
The flood and the poor ocean conditions (El Nino) in 1956-57 resulted
in a downturn in salmon spawning escapement. The 1964 flood was
a catastrophic event which caused major habitat losses throughout
the Klamath River Basin. Entire watersheds turned into debris
flows in some areas of the basin (MacCleery 1979). From 1964 to
1984, the river's anadromous fish declined further. The habitat
loss above Trinity and Iron Gate dams, the reduced flows in the
Trinity, lingering effects from the 1964 flood, further habitat
degradation, continued fishing pressure, and natural cycles like
El Nino and the 1976-77 drought drove the river's stocks to new
lows.
From 1985 to 1988, salmon runs in the Klamath
and Trinity Rivers rebounded, with particularly large returns
to the Trinity River and Iron Gate hatcheries. Evidence suggests
that many of the native stock groups of salmon, steelhead, and
other anadromous fishes of the basin may not have experienced
increases similar to the hatchery stocks of chinook and coho salmon.
As in Snyder's day, opinions vary as to whether stocks in the
river are building up or in further decline.
STOCK IDENTIFICATION
Ricker (1972) defined a stock as "the fish
spawning in a particular lake or stream (or portion thereof) at
a particular season, which ... to a substantial degree do not
interbreed with any group spawning in a different place or in
the same place at a different time." Through evolutionary
time stocks adapt through natural selection to home streams and
the wider environment experienced throughout their life history
(Helle 1981). While some information has been gathered on chinook
salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and steelhead (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) stocks since the Klamath River Basin Fisheries Resources
Plan (CH2M Hill 1985), no attempt has been made to better understand
the Basin's coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), coastal
cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii), green sturgeon
(Acipenser medirostris), American shad (Alosa sapidissima),
eulachon, or candlefish, (Thaleichthys pacificus), or Pacific
lamprey (Lampetra tridentata) population groups.
Stock identification can be determined by using
genetic information analyzed by a laboratory technique known as
"gel electrophoresis" (Ryman and Utter 1986). Genetic
changes are representative of the length of time that populations
have evolved separately. The time it takes for genetic change
or mutation seems to be fairly fixed at about 10,000 years for
each easily detectable change (Wilson and Sarich 1966). Where
stocks have been separated for a short period on an evolutionary
time scale, different behaviors and physiological features necessary
for survival, the animal's "phenotype," may change faster
than its genetic structure, or "genotype." Electrophoresis
is, therefore, actually a more appropriate tool for defining regional
stocks which have been isolated from one another for longer periods,
as opposed to finer stock-group distinction within basins (Eric
Loudenslager personal communication).
No genetic basis for some traits, such as fall-
and spring-run timing in chinook or steelhead stocks within the
same basin, can be found (Riesenbechler and Phelps 1989). Varying
physiological or behavioral characters may be better indicators
of stocks within the Klamath Basin. Nicholas and Hankin (1988a)
used the season-of-return to native stream, spawning date, age
at maturity, ocean migration pattern, number and size of eggs,
resistance to disease, and juvenile life history as characters
with which to define stocks of chinook salmon of the Oregon coast.
Fishery managers tend to think of stocks in
the broadest sense, such as "fall chinook" or "spring
chinook." Using Ricker's definition, however, numerous stock
groups tuned to the tributaries and geographic regions of the
Klamath River seem to be present. The "stock concept"
that recognizes that salmon and steelhead are divided into discrete
subpopulations has wide acceptance in fisheries science (Berst
and Simon 1981). Similar stock groups have been identified by
Saunders (1981) for Atlantic salmon, including several stocks
within one river system. Parkinson (1984) found distinct genetic
strains of steelhead in all the British Columbia streams that
he studied. His work suggests that the steelhead stocks that he
studied had colonized a wide area as glaciers retreated in relatively
recent geologic time. While the stocks he studied were very similar
in overall genetic makeup, differences had evolved in local populations,
even between adjacent streams.
Utter (1981) credited the evolution of genetic,
morphological, and behavioral differences to reproductive isolation
allowed by homing to natal streams. Recent work by Nicholas and
Hankin (1988a) found distinct populations of chinook in every
coastal drainage in Oregon, with some streams harboring several
stocks.
Problems with the Current Concept of "Natural"
Spawners
The current convention for both the Klamath
River and Trinity River restoration programs is to call fish spawning
outside the hatchery environment "natural" spawners.
Tuss (USFWS 1988a) pointed out that surplus hatchery fish, straying
up streams near the hatchery, or spawning in the main river below,
contributed substantially to "natural" escapement. Recent
investigations suggest that there can be substantial differences
in growth and survival of offspring of native or locally adapted
salmon and steelhead compared to those of hatchery fish spawned
in the wild (Riesenbichler and McIntyre 1977, Altukhov and Salmenova
1986, Chilcote et al. 1986, Solazzi et al. 1983).
The use of the term "natural" to include
both groups of fish obscures these differences and can mask whether
the goal of preserving viable native populations is being met
(USFWS 1988a). As an example, studies of chinook salmon spawning
above Junction City in the Trinity River indicated that 60 percent
were first-generation Trinity River Hatchery fish in 1987 (Stempel
1988). This high degree of straying would overwhelm any genetic
difference between hatchery stocks and other salmon present, yet
these fish make up the majority of "natural" chinook
salmon spawning in the Trinity River in this area. McIntyre et
al. (1988) used a more restrictive definition of "natural
fish" as those "produced by natural spawning, but with
at least one parent of hatchery origin."
Many areas in the Klamath River Basin still
have discrete groups of salmon and steelhead that are not of hatchery
origin. These stocks may have been returning to the Klamath Basin
for millions of years. In Oregon's Natural Production and Wild
Fish Management Rules (Chilcote 1990), wild fish are defined as
"any naturally spawning fish belonging to indigenous populations."
Indigenous fish were those descended from ancestral populations
which had spawned in the same geographic area prior to 1800, which
excludes fish populations established by man. The term "native"
will be used here when referring to the self-replicating populations
that return to various tributaries and at various times that do
not coincide with the range or timing of hatchery stocks. If this
use of native were adopted, "natural" spawners might
be those fish with run timing and distribution similar to hatchery
fish.
Various salmon and steelhead stocks from outside
the Klamath Basin have been imported and planted in basin tributaries.
Fish from the large hatcheries within the basin have also been
transplanted widely. Stock transfers of salmon and steelhead,
or straying, do not necessarily change the genetic structure of
locally adapted populations, however. If the introduced fish do
not have critically important survival adaptations to the local
environment, none of their offspring will survive, thereby preventing
"gene flow" from occurring (Riggs 1990). Further, a
few strays per generation will not cause appreciable genetic change,
although large numbers of strays can change a local population.
Genetic purity of stocks may not ultimately be the issue, however.
If stocks remain self-perpetuating in various streams of the basin,
they are adapted to local stream conditions. The may prove to
be essential building blocks for restoring runs either through
artificial culture or for recolonization after habitat restoration.
The current fall chinook population in Bluff
Creek was established from Iron Gate Hatchery fish. Similar populations
have been established in all tributaries from pond rearing programs
(see Chapter 5). Whether these transplanted fish will be self
sustaining without continuing pond rearing programs is unknown.
Use Of Stock Groups For Recognition and Protection
of Populations
McIntyre (1983) suggested the use of "management
units" for salmon management that might represent from one
to several stocks. He offered this option for stock groups in
deference to the fact that management of all creeks on an individual
basis, although ideal from a stock conservation and genetic preservation
perspective, was not possible due to costs and logistics. Some
fall chinook salmon stocks have been accepted de facto
in management, such as those fish returning to the Shasta, Scott,
and Salmon rivers and the South Fork of the Trinity. These populations
have been monitored with weirs.
Detailed identification of stock diversity of
anadromous fish in the Klamath Basin has yet to be attempted.
What is offered below is a conservative approach using "stock
groups" parallel to the concept of management units used
by McIntyre (1983). These stock groups also meet Ricker's definition
of run timing and destination and, where electrophoretic information
and those characters used by Nicholas and Hankin (1988a) are available,
they are used, as well. A complete listing is found in Table 4-1.
The boundaries may seem arbitrary when one splits stock designation
for fall chinook in small streams immediately upstream and downstream
from Weitchpec, for example. If one considers geographic centers
of these group boundaries, such as Blue Creek and Clear Creek,
the differences can be more demonstrable. Snyder (1931) noted
differences in run timing and body shape between these two stock
groups calling the former "Blue Creekers" and the latter
"hookbills."
The stock groups should be thought of as locally
adapted subpopulations that may have evolved appropriate characteristics
to survive in different regions of the Klamath Basin. Factors
such as climate and geology vary widely over the basin, giving
rise to varied fish habitat conditions. Adaptations to regional
stream flows, water temperatures, stream gradients, as well as
to the disease organisms present, may be captured in the genetic
information that different runs possess. The stock groups proposed
here cover wide areas. It is possible that considerable diversity,
worthy of preserving, may be found on a smaller geographic scale
between streams within these areas. A similar recognition of stocks
is emerging from the Columbia River Basin Salmon and Steelhead
Production Plan (Riggs 1990): "Because natural populations
of salmon and steelhead have evolved somewhat independently in
response to environmental conditions in different parts of a varied
ecosystem like the Columbia River Basin, each population may represent
an efficient production unit for its historic location and a potentially
valuable resource for other similar locations." In implementing
gene conservation for the Columbia Basin program, Riggs suggests
that "stock assessment is fundamental to the process, but
must not become an obstacle to the use of best available information"
for planning and program implementation.
FALL CHINOOK
The evidence suggests that fall chinook stock
groups in the Klamath River include those fish returning to: 1)
Iron Gate Hatchery, 2) Bogus Creek, 3) the Shasta River, 4) the
Scott River, 5) the Salmon River, in addition to the distinctly
late runs to 6) the middle Klamath tributaries below Iron Gate
Dam, and 7) the lower Klamath River tributaries below Weitchpec.
Electrophoretic Studies
Milner et al. (USFWS unpublished report), as
by the National Council on Gene Resources (1982), found that genetic
differences between Trinity and Klamath chinook were greater than
the differences between four Sacramento River stocks tested. The
differences between Klamath and Trinity River chinook reflect
the fact that these populations have evolved separately for some
time. The similarity of Sacramento tributary stocks may be the
result of the continuing stock transfers between subbasins there.
Recent electrophoretic analysis of ocean troll catches have defined
differences between the Klamath stock complex of fall chinook,
those of other California coastal systems, Central Valley stocks,
and those of southern Oregon (Gall et al. 1989).
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)
More detailed work was conducted within the
basin by Gall et al. (1989) as background. Samples were taken
from Camp Creek, Bogus Creek, Horse Linto Creek, the Iron Gate
Hatchery, the South Fork of the Trinity River, the Trinity River
Hatchery, and rearing ponds holding "late run" fall
chinook from the lower Klamath. The purpose of the study was not
to determine the genetic relationships of chinook stocks within
the Klamath Basin, but rather to distinguish basin stocks from
others in the mixed-stock ocean harvest. All samples, however,
showed some genetic differences from one another. Those closest
geographically showed the greatest genetic similarity, although
the differences were not statistically significant (Devon Bartley
personal communication).
Life History Studies
Sullivan (unpublished) collected scales from
adult fall chinook salmon captured at weirs on the South Fork
of the Trinity River, Salmon River, Scott River, Shasta River,
and Bogus Creek. The patterns of the innermost areas of the scales
were analyzed to determine the early life history of each fish.
He found that three life histories exist for fall chinook:
1. Type I,in which outmigration begins immediately
and juveniles entered the ocean in the spring.
2. Type II,which spends the spring and summer in the river or
estuary and enters theocean in the fall.
3. Type III, which occurs only rarely, in which chinook juveniles
spend an entire year in freshwater, entering the ocean as yearlings
in spring.
Sullivan concluded that "major differences
of relative frequencies of life history types were apparent between
different tributaries studied." He found high frequencies
of Type II life histories in the Scott and Salmon drainages. The
South Fork of the Trinity and Shasta River fall chinook showed
a higher incidence of Type I patterns. These differences may reflect
a difference in genetic structure, but they may also be behavioral
responses to environmental conditions. Do more Type I fish in
the Shasta and South Fork Trinity simply reflect the fact that
most juvenile chinook that remain in these streams fail to survive?
Are Type II and Type III fish still present in these two stock
groups and will they be reexpressed if habitat conditions improve?
Life history patterns are used as partial criteria for stock group
identification here, but further study is needed.
Most adults returning to spawn in upper Klamath
tributaries and at Iron Gate Hatchery enter the river early (USFWS
1982, Hubbell et al. 1979). Migration peaks in the last week of
August or toward the beginning of the first week in September.
The time of entry into the Klamath for the various stock groups
and the time of entry into their home streams follow characteristic
patterns which may vary somewhat with river conditions. Rates
of upstream migration may be effected by water temperatures, for
instance, in the main stem of the Klamath. The following describe
the fall chinook population groups.
Iron Gate
The hatchery stock may represent upper basin
stocks that once returned to the Upper Klamath and its tributaries
above Iron Gate Dam (Fortune et al. 1966). These fish arrive at
the hatchery beginning in the third week in September, peak in
abundance toward mid-October and have all arrived by the second
week in November. Their average fecundity is about 3,100 eggs
per female.
Bogus Creek
While straying has increased from Iron Gate
Hatchery into Bogus Creek in recent years (Randy Baxter personal
communication), Gall et al. (1989) still found genetic difference
between Bogus stocks and those of the Iron Gate Hatchery. Mills
et al. (unpublished) has found that the outmigration of juveniles
begins in mid-February and continues through early June. Sullivan
(unpublished) found that three-year-old Bogus Creek chinook returned
to spawn at a smaller size than three-year-old Shasta, Scott,
or Salmon River fish.
Shasta River
Department of Fish and Game operations at the
Shasta Racks show that fall chinook enter the Shasta River from
mid-September to mid-October. Snyder (1931) reported that spawning
activity on the Shasta peaked in mid-October. CDFG reports from
the operation of the racks suggest little straying from Iron Gate
Hatchery, indicating a strong likelihood of the continuing genetic
integrity of this stock group. Mills et al. (unpublished) found
only early outmigration of juvenile chinooks, beginning in early
January and complete by the end of April.
Scott River
Weir operation by CDFG (Hubbell, et al. 1985)
on the Scott indicated a peak in spawning run near the end of
October. Again, incidences of straying are low, indicating
little intermixing with Iron Gate Hatchery stocks. Sullivan (unpublished)
found predominantly Type II life histories in the fall chinook
returning to the Scott.
Salmon River
This major Klamath tributary has adult fall
chinook returning as soon as early September. Large adults have
also been seen spawning as late as January (J. West personal communication),
which may represent a second fall chinook run in this system.
Early life histories of Salmon River fall chinook were also predominantly
Type II (Sullivan unpublished).
Middle Klamath Tributaries
Snyder (1931) described a late run of fall chinook
for the area above the Trinity River's confluence with the Klamath,
calling them "hookbills." He said that spawning took
place between November and January. Leidy and Leidy (1984) also
described a run of fall chinook in this region with this late
timing. Current efforts by the Karuk Tribe to trap late fall chinook
for breeding are directed at this stock group.
Lower Klamath Tributaries
Snyder (1931) noted that larger fish showed
up at the mouth of the Klamath beginning in October and entered
the lower river tributaries to spawn. Recent observations have
noted spawning as late as January by this stock group (USFWS 1990c).
The Indian fishermen called these fish "Blue Creekers."
Snyder (1931) found them to be very similar to Smith River fish
in body size, shape, and coloration. Gall et al. (1989) found
these fish to be more similar genetically to Smith River or southern
Oregon stocks than to other Klamath groups. USFWS (1990b) found
that juvenile chinook outmigration extended from April at least
through July (sampling ended in July) with peaks in mid-April
and mid-June. Some yearling (Type III) chinook juveniles have
been found in the lower Klamath tributaries (USFWS 1990a). Yurok
Tribe enhancement projects are attempting to increase runs of
these "Blue Creekers."
SPRING CHINOOK
The runs of spring salmon in the Klamath Basin
were very important historically, outnumbering fall chinook stocks
substantially (Hume in Snyder 1931). Snyder (1931) described a
spring run that began in late March and continued through mid-June,
followed by a summer run. Some spring chinook have returned as
early as February, even in recent years (USFWS 1990d). Moffett
and Smith (1950) described two distinct peaks at Lewiston, on
the Trinity River, in spring chinook migrations prior to dam and
hatchery construction. One run was most abundant in June, while
the second peaked in August. Today's runs are supported in large
part by the Trinity River Hatchery, which was founded on these
ancestral stocks. These stocks return to the mouth of the Klamath
River beginning in April and continue entering the river into
July.
TABLE 4-1 -- Tentative stock groups of Anadromous
Fishes on the Klamath River Basin.
FALL CHINOOK
Upper Klamath (Iron Gate Hatchery)
Bogus Creek
Shasta River
Scott River
Salmon River
Middle Klamath tributaries (from Weitchpec to Iron Gate Dam)*
Lower Klamath tributaries (below Weitchpec)*
Trinity River Hatchery/Upper Trinity (above Junction City)
South Fork Trinity
North Fork Trinity
Middle Trinity tributaries (from South Fork to Junction City)
Lower Trinity tributaries (South Fork to Weitchpec)
SPRING CHINOOK
Upper Trinity/Trinity River Hatchery
South Fork Trinity
North Fork Trinity
New River
Salmon River
Wooley Creek
Elk Creek
Clear Creek
Dillon Creek
COHO
Iron Gate Hatchery
Trinity River Hatchery
Lower Klamath tributaries
Scott River
Shasta River (?)
Salmon River
Middle Klamath tributaries
Lower Trinity tributaries (?)
SUMMER STEELHEAD
New River
South Fork Trinity River
North Fork Trinity River
Canyon Creek
Bluff Creek
Salmon River
Wooley Creek
Elk Creek
Dillon Creek
Red Cap Creek
Clear Creek
Indian Creek
FALL/WINTER STEELHEAD (from Leidy and Leidy
1984, in part)
Upper Klamath (Iron Gate Hatchery)
Upper Trinity (Trinity River Hatchery)
Shasta River
Scott River
Salmon River
Middle Klamath tributaries
Lower Klamath tributaries
Lower Trinity tributaries (Weitchpec to North Fork)
Upper Trinity tributaries (North Fork to Lewiston Dam)
New River
North Fork Trinity River
South Fork Trinity River
CUTTHROAT TROUT: Lower Klamath tributaries
GREEN STURGEON: Unknown
PACIFIC LAMPREY: Unknown
EULACHON: Unknown
AMERICAN SHAD: East Coast in origin
* The stock boundaries used here are the same
as used to define the basin areas in this Plan except for the
Lower and Middle Klamath tributary fall chinook stocks, due to
the information from Snyder (1931) and Gall et al. (1989).
A few dozen spring chinook were still returning
to the upper Klamath at the time that Iron Gate Hatchery was begun,
25 years ago (Curt Hiser personal communication). Fortune et al.
(1966) described upper Klamath spring chinook stocks as having
special abilities to migrate and home through Klamath Lake. From
1962 to 1968 the return of this distinct run of fish went unrecognized.
Efforts to maintain these runs were begun in 1968, but were not
successful and this stock group was lost (CH2M Hill 1985).
The Salmon River and its Wooley Creek tributary support what may
be the last viable native spring chinook salmon population in
the Klamath Basin. Streams that support summer steelhead in the
mid-Klamath, such as Indian Creek, Elk Creek, and Clear Creek,
have small, highly variable populations of spring chinook salmon.
Trinity River tributaries such as the North
Fork, New River, the South Fork, and Canyon Creek also have runs
of spring chinook. Canyon Creek is not included in the stock groups
listed in Table 4-1 because it is suspected that its run is made
up largely of hatchery strays. Salmon River stocks seem to enter
this major tributary from mid-April to early June, but run timing
may vary with river temperature and flows.
COHO SALMON
Snyder (1931) reported significant coho salmon
runs, particularly in the lower Klamath Basin tributaries. He
noted a migration of coho to the Klamathon Racks on the upper
Klamath in the 1920's, although they were never used for broodstock
at the Fall Creek Hatchery. More recently, Harry (1966) described
coho salmon populations in the Shasta, Scott, and Salmon Rivers
and some coho have been counted at weirs in these systems in recent
years (CDFG unpublished). Coho once returned to the Stuart's Fork
of the upper Trinity River (USFWS 1979) and native coho were trapped
at a weir to establish a broodstock just prior to the completion
of the Trinity River Hatchery (Bedell 1968). Moffett and Smith
(1950) noted that coho spawned in smaller tributaries below the
South Fork on the Trinity River.
Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
Hoopa Fisheries Department surveys (1988) note
the incidence of adult and juvenile coho salmon in the Trinity
River, but whether viable reproducing coho salmon populations
still exist on the Reservation remains questionable. The question
of whether native coho stocks remain in this area is somewhat
clouded because of releases of Trinity River Hatchery coho in
1981-82 (Mike Orcutt personal communication). Native coho are
still present in the Klamath tributaries below Weitchpec. Unpublished
CDFG field reports note the presence of coho in Hunter Creek and
Terwer Creek. Small numbers of coho juveniles are found in downstream
migrant traps operated by USFWS (1990a) in creeks in this area.
Native coho migration and spawning is later than hatchery populations,
with adults captured in the lower river in November and December
(R. Pierce personal communication). In some years coho at the
trapping station in Camp Creek outnumber the returning chinook
salmon (Leaf Hillman personal communication).
The hatchery runs of coho for both Iron Gate
and Trinity River hatcheries were created from broodstock from
the Cascade Hatchery in the Columbia River Basin. This stock returns
to the lower river in September and October, with the peak generally
occurring in the second week of October (Hubbell 1979). Coho yearlings
from Iron Gate Hatchery were transplanted to Indian Creek, Beaver
Creek, and Elk Creek between 1985 and 1989 and have resulted in
at least some spawning activity in Indian Creek (Dennis Maria
personal communication).
STEELHEAD
Although steelhead are very important to the
economy of the Klamath Basin, little is known about their stock
groups. Distinguishing between steelhead stock groups by time
of return to the river becomes very problematic (Roelofs 1983).
Everest (1973) found that steelhead entering in early fall spawned
with earlier returning summer steelhead in the Rogue River. Similarly,
fall fish may sometimes wait until after the rains to move into
their tributaries and spawning could overlap with early winter
steelhead. "Half pounders," small, sexually immature
steelhead that have spent less than one year in the ocean, may
be the
Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
offspring of fall, summer or winter steelhead
stocks (Everest 1973). Half pounders run only in the Klamath,
Rogue, Eel, and Mad Rivers (Barnhardt 1986). Ceratomyxa shasta,
a deadly protozoan fish disease is present in the upper Klamath.
Buchanan (in press) has found native trout in the Klamath above
Iron Gate Dam to be resistant to this disease. Steelhead in the
Middle and Upper Klamath would also be exposed to high levels
of C. shasta and have evolved a resistance.
The only attempts to identify stocks of steelhead
in the Klamath Basin using electrophoresis were conducted on the
South Fork of the Trinity River. The study compared South Fork
stock groups with those of the upper mainstem of the Trinity and
found significant difference between stocks in the two streams
(Baker 1988). Lesser differences were noted among steelhead juveniles
in South Fork tributaries, but Baker pointed out that the diversity
might be indicative of important local adaptations to environmental
conditions.
Both Iron Gate and Trinity River hatcheries
release steelhead that return in fall and winter. Trinity River
Hatchery steelhead broodstock included stock imported from the
Eel River, three Oregon hatcheries, and Washington hatchery Skamania
steelhead (CH2M Hill 1985). Iron Gate Hatchery steelhead stocks
were founded from native fish but some steelhead eggs from Trinity
River Hatchery and the Cowlitz River Hatchery in Washington were
imported (CH2M Hill 1985). Recently, large numbers of Iron Gate
Hatchery steelhead have been transferred to Trinity River Hatchery
(Bedell 1984, 1985). Studies by Satterthwaite (1988) indicated
that half-pounders from both hatcheries were present in the Rogue
River. This indicates that a native component remains in both
hatchery broodstocks as pure non-native stocks would probably
not exhibit the half-pounder life history.
Information about summer steelhead stock distributions
is based on direct observations (Roelofs 1983, Gerstung 1989).
Fall steelhead are joined with winter steelhead in this plan because
of insufficient knowledge about discretely different migration
patterns, times of spawning, or other characters that might help
define separate stock groups. Information on fall steelhead migrations
are based on weir counts. The designation of fall/winter steelhead
stocks follows, for the most part, Leidy and Leidy (1984). First
hand reports of adults in streams such as the Shasta and South
Fork of the Trinity River, and the presence of juvenile steelhead
in downstream migrant traps in the lower Klamath tributaries (USFWS
1990) were also used for these designations. Further research
is needed, however, to better understand stock diversity and the
life histories of the basin's steelhead. Revision of the groups
listed below may be needed as further research is completed.
Fall/Winter Run
Weir records note migrations of steelhead during
fall in the Salmon River, the Scott River, the upper Klamath,
the upper Trinity, the South Fork of the Trinity, and the North
Fork of the Trinity River. Larger tributaries that provide clear
access for returning steelhead during fall flows include Elk Creek,
Clear Creek, Indian Creek, and Independence Creek (J. West personal
communication). USFWS (1990b) has noted steelhead returning to
Blue Creek in October.
There is little information about the steelhead
that enter Klamath Basin tributaries for spawning during high
winter flows. They return when the river is swollen by winter
rains and they spawn in remote tributaries that are often inaccessible
to surveyors. Leidy and Leidy (1984) described winter runs similar
to some of the stock groups suggested in this plan. Winter steelhead
probably have the widest distribution of any salmonids in the
basin because their time of return allows them free passage into
many smaller streams.
Summer Run
Summer steelhead return to the following tributaries
in the Klamath Basin: the Salmon River, Wooly Creek, Redcap Creek,
Elk Creek, Bluff Creek, Dillon Creek, Indian Creek, Clear Creek,
South Fork Trinity, North Fork Trinity, New River, and Canyon
Creek (Roelofs 1983). A few summer steelhead have been seen in
Blue Creek, the Scott River, Camp Creek, Grider Creek, and Ukonom
Creek.
COASTAL CUTTHROAT TROUT
The lower Klamath tributaries harbor populations
of cutthroat trout. This species is found only north of California's
Eel River, but is commonly found in coastal streams from Oregon
to British Columbia. Cutthroat trout of the Klamath are poorly
studied, but they have been collected in seine samples taken in
the estuary, downstream migrant traps on lower tributaries, and
during electroshocking in Hunter Creek. Data on genetic diversity,
life history or physiological features that would assist stock
structure identification appears altogether lacking.
Coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii)
Trotter (1987) described the life history of
the coastal cutthroat species. He suggests that cutthroat in the
southern areas of their range, like the Klamath, would enter the
river from November through March. Adult size ranges from 11 to
18 inches. Juveniles may spend one to two years in streams or
estuaries. Many cutthroat return to the river after just four
months in the ocean and may, or may not, be sexually mature. If
they survive their spawning journey, cutthroat will return to
spawn again after several months in the ocean.
GREEN STURGEON
While the Klamath may contain the largest reproducing
population of green sturgeon on the west coast (USFWS 1983), little
is known about their genetics or population structure. Male green
sturgeon reach sexual maturity at about 15 years of age and females
at about age 20. These fish can spawn repeatedly after returning
to the ocean for 2 to 8 years. Males may have a shorter interval
between spawning. One specimen 60 years old was found in the Klamath.
Juveniles usually leave the river before they are two years old
and remain near the mouth of the Klamath for 6 to 8 years. Tag
returns from the ocean show migrations of several hundred miles.
Green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris)
Adult sturgeon return to the river between March
and June to spawn in the Trinity River, below Greys Falls, in
the Klamath, mostly below Ishi Pishi Falls, and in the Salmon
River. Green sturgeon have been seen all the way up the river
to Iron Gate Dam (J. West personal communication). Prior to 1964,
there were reports of green sturgeon in the South Fork of the
Trinity River, but they are unknown in the river today. Whether
fish using different areas of the river represent subpopulations
or stocks or simply choose various spawning sites opportunistically
is unknown (CH2M Hill (1985), Pat Foley, personal communication).
PACIFIC LAMPREY
The Pacific lamprey of the Klamath basin enter
the river from March through June, spending some time in migration,
hiding under stones and logs until mature (Moyle 1976). No correlations
between time of entry and spawning destination have been observed.
Most spawning takes place in spring and early summer, but Moffett
and Smith (1950)
Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentata)
observed migrations as late as August and September
in the upper Trinity. By alternately swimming and using their
sucking disc to maintain position, lampreys can move upstream
over waterfalls (Kimsey and Fisk 1964). Lampreys attach to stones
and thrash their tales to dig nests. Females lay between 20,000
and 200,000 eggs depending on their size. Lampreys die after spawning.
Young lamprey are known as "ammocoetes"
and they spend four to seven years in streams. In this immature
phase, they are not predacious. Adults spend from 6 to 18 months
in the ocean where they attach themselves to a wide variety of
large fishes. Populations of Pacific lamprey trapped above Lewiston
and Trinity dams have formed landlocked populations that predate
heavily on the Kokanee salmon and other resident fish of Lewiston
and Trinity Lakes. Dwarfed landlocked forms are also known in
the Klamath River above Iron Gate Dam and in Upper Klamath Lake
(Hubbs 1971). The stunted adults from Iron Gate Reservoir attach
to adult salmon and steelhead being held for spawning at the hatchery.
The lamprey has always been an important food source for Indians
of the Klamath Basin, who used baskets to trap these fish during
their migrations (Kroeber and Barrett 1960).
AMERICAN SHAD
American shad are members of the herring family
and were imported from the Atlantic coast between 1871 and 1881,
and planted in the Sacramento River. Other major plants were made
in the Columbia River. American shad subsequently spread to the
Klamath River and the rest of the Pacific coast between San Pedro,
California and south-eastern Alaska.
Adult American shad may grow up to 25 inches
in length and weigh as much as five pounds. Females are larger
than males, returning to the river after four years in the ocean.
Males return after three. Spawning runs usually peak in May and
June. It is inferred from their rapid increase in range after
introduction to the west coast, that American shad migrate long
distances up and down the coast. It is not know if these fish
exhibit any degree of homing to streams where they were spawned.
American shad (Alosa sapidissima)
American shad spawn in mass in the main channel
of the river, usually at night. Each female can lay 30,000 to
300,000 eggs, depending on her size. Most adults die after spawning,
but a few may survive and return to the ocean. Mortality is correlated
to warm water temperatures at the time of spawning. Shad eggs
are only slightly denser than water, so they remain partially
suspended, gradually drifting downstream. Hatching takes 3 to
6 days, with juveniles gradually moving downstream and out to
sea. Juveniles may spend several months in the delta of the Sacramento
system, but the length of time juvenile American shad remain in
the Klamath estuary is unknown.
The information above on American Shad was taken
from Moyle (1976).
EULACHON
The eulachon, or candlefish, are compressed,
elongate smelt that can grow to 12 inches in length. Adult fish
more than eight inches long are, however, uncommon. Spawning occurs
in March and April in the lowest 5 to 7 miles of the Klamath River.
Females broadcast spawn about 25,000 eggs each in areas of pea-sized
gravel or sand. Most fish die after spawning. The eggs adhere
to the bottom until they hatch two to three weeks later. The small
(4 to 5 mm) transparent larvae are quickly swept to the sea after
hatching.
Eulachon, (Thaleichthys pacificus)
Eulachon larvae are dispersed by the ocean currents.
Some eulachon inhabit deep waters offshore and feed on copepods
and crustaceans. After three years in the ocean, eulachon return
to the river to spawn.
Again, the information presented on this species was taken largely
from Moyle (1976).
KRIS Klamath Resource Information System